Myths about male rape and Military Sexual Trauma

There are numerous frequently accepted myths about male rape and in all probability more so than there are about female rape. These myths have the effect of minimizing the gravity of the crime, and the accountability of the perpetrator.

These myths about male rape also have an effect on the way men think about themselves when they have been assaulted, and, sadly, the way those men are treated by many other individuals.

Understanding the facts about male rape can give the male rape victim the strength to counteract their fears and, we hope, will enable more men to ask for the information and counseling support that they so rightly ought to have. Knowing what are the myths and facts about male rape, may also help others understand how to respond to those male rape victims.

Here are a few of the facts about, and some of the most frequent myths about male rape and men who are raped.

Read them all at the link.

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The National Centre for Victims of Crime has this report on “Male Rape” that gives these shocking statistics:

• About 3% of American men – a total of 2.78 million men – have experienced a rape at some point in their lifetime (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006).
• In 2003, one in every ten rape victims was male. While there are no reliable annual surveys of sexual assaults on children, the Justice Department has estimated that one of six victims are under age 12 (National Crime Victimization Study, 2003).
• 71% of male victims were first raped before their 18th birthday; 16.6% were 18-24 years old, and 12.3% were 25 or older (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2006).
• Males are the least likely to report a sexual assault, though it is estimated that they make up 10% of all victims (RAINN, 2006).
• 22% of male inmates have been raped at least once during their incarceration; roughly 420,000 prisoners each year (Human Rights Watch, 2001).

The report elaborates:

Nicholas Groth, a clinical psychologist and author of Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender, says all sexual assault is an act of aggression, regardless of the gender or age of the victim or the assailant. Neither sexual desire nor sexual deprivation is the primary motivating force behind sexual assault. It is not about sexual gratification, but rather a sexual aggressor using somebody else as a means of expressing their own power and control.

Much has been written about the psychological trauma associated with the rape of female victims. While less research has been conducted about male rape victims, case research suggests that males also commonly experience many of the reactions that females experience. These reactions include: depression, anger, guilt, self-blame, sexual dysfunctions, flashbacks, and suicidal feelings (Isley, 1991). Other problems facing males include an increased sense of vulnerability, damaged self-image and emotional distancing (Mezey & King, 1989). Male rape victims not only have to confront unsympathetic attitudes if they choose to press charges, they also often hear unsupportive statements from their friends, family and acquaintances (Brochman, 1991). People will tend to fault the male victim instead of the rapist. Stephen Donaldson, president of Stop Prisoner Rape (a national education and advocacy group), says that the suppression of knowledge of male rape is so powerful and pervasive that criminals such as burglars and robbers sometimes rape their male victims as a sideline solely to prevent them from going to the police.

There are many reasons that male victims do not come forward and report being raped, but perhaps the biggest reason for many males is the fear of being perceived as homosexual. However, male sexual assault has nothing to do with the sexual orientation of the attacker or the victim, just as a sexual assault does not make the victim survivor gay, bisexual or heterosexual. It is a violent crime that affects heterosexual men as much as gay men. The phrase “homosexual rape,” for instance, which is often used by uninformed persons to designate male-male rape, camouflages the fact that the majority of the rapists are not generally homosexual (Donaldson, 1990).

 More

Male Rape

Facts about Men and Rape

• Men get raped by other men and even women
• Rapists who rape men are heterosexual in 98% of the cases
• Both homosexual and heterosexual men get raped
• In all parts of society (not just in prisons)
• Men are less likely to report rape

Most of us grow up thinking that rape happens only to women.
If male rape survivors think so too, they may feel isolated and alone.
If people in our community believe that, they may further this sense of isolation on the part of male rape survivors.
Men usually share many of the same feelings of female sexual assault survivors. They may feel:

• guilty
• powerless
• concern regarding their safety
• denial
• shock
• anger

There are, however, special issues that may be different for men:

• concerns about sexuality and/or masculinity
• medical procedures
• reporting to law enforcement
• telling others
• finding resources and support

Strong or weak, outgoing or withdrawn, homosexual or heterosexual, old or young, male or female; no one does anything that justifies sexual assault.

Myths about Men and Rape

No matter what was said or done or worn, no one "asks for" or deserves to be assaulted. Sexual assault has nothing to do with someone's present or future sexual orientation. Sexual assault is a crime of violence and power, not of lust or passion.
Unfortunately, many doctors, nurses, and law enforcement officers do not realize that men as well as women may be sexually assaulted. This may affect the way they treat men who have been raped. Sometimes a stereotyped view of masculinity, rather than the physical assault of the crime becomes the focus of the medical exam or law enforcement investigation.
Two myths about homosexuality may also affect the way men are treated. Many people wrongly believe that only gay men get raped. Many people also believe that assaults against men are committed only by gay men. Both of these are myths, not facts, but they may affect the way male rape survivors are treated, and/or how male survivors feel about the assault and themselves afterwards.

What Can We Do

• Recognize that men and boys can and will be sexually assaulted.
• Be aware of the biases and myths concerning sexual assault.
• Recognize that the harmful sex-role stereotypes which create narrow definitions of masculinity, as well as lies about homosexuality, make it difficult for male survivors to disclose about being raped.
• As individuals and as a community we must work to combat and challenge these attitudes.
• It is important that male rape survivors have support around them and that they be able to make their own decisions about what course of action to take.

 MALE RESPONSIBILITY FOR RAPE AND RAPE AWARENESS
Unfortunately, most men do not recognize that there is a problem here, and fewer still acknowledge responsibility for any part of it. As a result, rape is seen, if at all, as a "women's issue." The impression remains that men are in no way connected to sexual assault, neither in its occurrence, nor through its effects, nor by its causes.

ONE IN THREE WOMEN AND ONE IN SEVEN MEN... WHAT DOES THIS MEAN

It is important that men learn to see how this cultural reality by itself has great impact on our lives. Men are connected to this world in which women and men are assaulted and men are connected to the women who are forced to adjust their behavior accordingly. These connections--through the effects of sexual violence against women--should not be for men a "women's issue." As women are affected whether or not they are actually raped, men's lives are greatly changed whether or not they are actually assailants.

WHERE DO ALL THESE RAPISTS COME FROM?

Men rape. This Is Fact One, and no discussion of sexual assault should distract us from this reality. Historically, men have always denied and evaded Fact One. This is Fact Two, and no discussion of the causes of sexual assault should deflect us from this responsibility.
Recognition of reality and acknowledgment of responsibility can come with great difficulty to most men. Evasions, denials, and defensiveness, however, miss the point and simply will no longer suffice.

SEXUAL OBJECTS MAKE SEXUAL TARGETS

The story of sexual assault in our culture is not just about rape. Rapist are not born, they are made. And remade. And the culture which makes "them" also makes "us."
The question of why some men rape is thus connected to the question of why sexual violence is tolerated. This connection exists at a double intersection: between attitudes and actions, between violence and notions of masculinity. Men are all connected to these intersections because this is where they have grown up as men.
Men have the power collectively to end rape.
Unfortunately, so far, this male collective appears to be composed mainly of men who rape, men who hold attitudes similar to rapists, and men who undoubtedly do care in their own personal lives, yet remain quiet in the community where rape occurs.
The raising of the question is far more important than its phrasing. Consider....,
HOW WOULD OUR LIVES BE DIFFERENT IF THERE WAS NO SEXUAL VIOLENCE?

HOW MEN CAN HELP PREVENT RAPE:

• examine your own attitudes about women and men that may reflect misconceptions about rape
• assertively interrupt jokes, comments or actions that lead to attitudes or situations that can cause rape
• assist women with precautions that decrease their chances of becoming victims
• support women's actions to take charge of their own lives; to be confident and strong
• listen to women's feelings about being victimized

ACTIONS MEN CAN TAKE:

• If a woman says "no" to your sexual advances, respect that "no" at face value. Do not accept the myth that "no" means "yes."
• In a dating or intimate relationship communicate clearly how you feel and what you want. Do not assume your date or partner feels the same way. Respect the other person's feelings and needs.
• Be aware of situations that increase a woman's vulnerability. How would you respond if you witnessed an intoxicated woman at a party being escorted by two or three men to a bedroom.
• Confront men who are harassing women on the street or at a party. Point out sexist comments and behavior with your friends and coworkers.
• Tell men that you do not think rape jokes are funny.

If you feel uncomfortable confronting other men on sexist issues, then get in touch with other men who share your views. Build your confidence in how you feel and learn how you can make an impact by being an example.

Whether or not WE as individuals are violent, WE support and encourage THE MEN who rape both by the actions that support a sexist society and the inaction that condones the violence. If WE work together to educate ourselves and THE MEN around us about the devastating effects of rape and sexual assault and how WE can eliminate the violence and sexist attitudes that precipitate rape WE can make it end.

LEARN TO RECOGNIZE EMOTIONS IN YOURSELF AND OTHERS

Violence generally does not erupt from nowhere. There are clues when anger is becoming unmanageable. The ways people handle their anger are divided into two general categories:

Stuffers:

Those who stuff anger down inside themselves and deny its presence, suffer feelings of low self esteem, and self doubt, intellectualize their situations. They become progressively withdrawn, depressed, tense, until it becomes too much and they explode in violence.

Escalators:

Escalators are easier to identify. They begin their sentences with "you." They blame and call names. Eventually their anger escalates into a blow-up and violence.

Identifying these signs early allows more options for change.

IMMEDIATE ALTERNATIVES TO VIOLENT BEHAVIOR

If you are feeling out of control with your anger and think you may hurt someone or yourself, you can do something immediately to squash the impulse and leave yourself better able to deal with problems:

• call someone
• meditate or do breathing exercises to relax
• take a cold shower, or relax in a hot bath
• work on a hobby
• go into another room and scream
• complete or begin projects around the house or yard
• take a "time out" and leave the scene completely for a designated time
• hit a pillow
• take a walk
• exercise

LIFESTYLE CHANGES TO MODIFY VIOLENT BEHAVIOR

• develop a daily decompression time from work to home
• establish regular family fun time
• develop a positive self-confidence so that you can be assertive rather than aggressive in communicating
• reduce the number of factors which reinforce violence in your life
• identify activities which produce a lot of stress in your life and work on eliminating or modifying those activities
• examine the addictions in your life which may increase the chance for violence
• develop good health habits: eating, sleeping well and daily exercise can make a difference
• develop fun time for yourself
• identify groups which may provide you with support in dealing with particular problems
• take self-help classes in communication, parent education, etc..
• think of long term changes you wish to make to decrease the stress in your life

Overview
Society is becoming increasingly aware of male rape. However, experts believe that current male rape statistics vastly under-represent the actual number of males age 12 and over who are raped each year. Rape crisis counselors estimate that while only one in 50 raped women report the crime to the police, the rates of under-reporting among men are even higher (Brochman, 1991). Until the mid-1980s, most literature discussed this violent crime in the context of women only. The lack of tracking of sexual crimes against men and the lack of research about the effects of male rape are indicative of the attitude held by society at large -- that while male rape occurs, it is not an acceptable topic for discussion.

Historically, the rape of males was more widely recognized in ancient times. Several of the legends in Greek mythology involved abductions and sexual assaults of males by other males or gods. The rape of a defeated male enemy was considered the special right of the victorious soldier in some societies and was a signal of the totality of the defeat. There was a widespread belief that a male who was sexually penetrated, even if it was by forced sexual assault, thus "lost his manhood," and could no longer be a warrior or ruler. Gang rape of a male was considered an ultimate form of punishment and, as such, was known to the Romans as punishment for adultery and the Persians and Iranians as punishment for violation of the sanctity of the harem (Donaldson, 1990).

A. Nicholas Groth, a clinical psychologist and author of Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender, says all sexual assault is an act of aggression, regardless of the gender or age of the victim or the assailant. Neither sexual desire nor sexual deprivation is the primary motivating force behind sexual assault. It is not about sexual gratification, but rather a sexual aggressor using somebody else as a means of expressing their own power and control.
Much has been written about the psychological trauma associated with the rape of female victims. While less research has been conducted about male rape victims, case research suggests that males also commonly experience many of the reactions that females experience. These reactions include: depression, anger, guilt, self-blame, sexual dysfunctions, flashbacks, and suicidal feelings (Isley, 1991). Other problems facing males include an increased sense of vulnerability, damaged self-image and emotional distancing (Mezey & King, 1989). Male rape victims not only have to confront unsympathetic attitudes if they choose to press charges, they also often hear unsupportive statements from their friends, family and acquaintances (Brochman, 1991). People will tend to fault the male victim instead of the rapist. Stephen Donaldson, president of Stop Prisoner Rape (a national education and advocacy group), says that the suppression of knowledge of male rape is so powerful and pervasive that criminals such as burglars and robbers sometimes rape their male victims as a sideline solely to prevent them from going to the police.

There are many reasons that male victims do not come forward and report being raped, but perhaps the biggest reason for many males is the fear of being perceived as homosexual. However, male sexual assault has nothing to do with the sexual orientation of the attacker or the victim, just as a sexual assault does not make the victim survivor gay, bisexual or heterosexual. It is a violent crime that affects heterosexual men as much as gay men. The phrase "homosexual rape," for instance, which is often used by uninformed persons to designate male-male rape, camouflages the fact that the majority of the rapists are not generally homosexual (Donaldson, 1990).

In a well-known study of offenders and victims conducted by Nicholas Groth and Ann Burgess, one-half of the offender population described their consenting sexual encounters to be with women only, while 38 percent had consenting sexual encounters with men and women. Additionally, one-half of the victim population was strictly heterosexual. Among the offenders studied, the gender of the victim did not appear to be of specific significance to half of the offenders. Instead, they appeared to be relatively indiscriminate with regard to their choice of a victim -- that is, their victims included both males and females, as well as both adults and children (Groth & Burgess, 1980). The choice of a victim seemed to be more a matter of accessibility than of sexual orientation, gender or age.

Many people believe that the majority of male rape occurs in prison; however, there is existing research which shatters this myth. A study of incarcerated and non-incarcerated male rape victims in Tennessee concluded that the similarities between these two groups would suggest that the sexual assault of men may not be due to conditions unique to a prison and that all men are potential victims (Lipscomb et al., 1992).

Research indicates that the most common sites for male rape involving post-puberty victims are outdoors in remote areas and in automobiles (the latter usually involving hitchhikers). Boys in their early and mid-teens are more likely to be victimized than older males (studies indicate a median victim age of 17). The form of assault usually involves penetration of the victim anally and/or orally, rather than stimulation of the victim's penis. Gang rape is more common in cases involving male victims than those involving female victims. Also, multiple sexual acts are more likely to be demanded, weapons are more likely to be displayed and used, and physical injury is more likely to occur, with the injuries that do occur being more serious than with injured female rape victims (Porter, 1986).
Definition
Sexual assault and rape include any unwanted sexual acts. The assailant can be a stranger, an acquaintance, a family member, or someone the victim knows well and trusts. Rape and sexual assault are crimes of violence and are used to exert power and control over another person. The legal definitions of rape and sexual assault can vary from state to state (National Center for Victims of Crime, INFO LINK, No. 70. However, usually a sexual assault occurs when a someone touches any part of another person's body in a sexual way, even through their clothes, without that person's consent. Rape of males is any kind of sexual assault that involves forced penetration of the anus or mouth by a penis, finger or any other object. Both rape and sexual assault includes situations when the victim cannot say "no" because he is disabled, unconscious, drunk or high.

In some states, the word "rape" is used only to define a forced act of vaginal sexual intercourse, and an act of forced anal intercourse is termed "sodomy." In some states, the crime of sodomy also includes any oral sexual act. There are some states that now use gender-neutral terms to define acts of forced anal, vaginal or oral intercourse. Also, some states no longer use the terms "rape" and "sodomy," rather all sex crimes are described as sexual assaults or criminal sexual conduct of various degrees depending on the use and amount of force or coercion on the part of the assailant (National Center for Victims of Crime, INFO LINK, No. 70).
Victims' Response
It is not uncommon for a male rape victim to blame himself for the rape, believing that he in some way gave permission to the rapist (Brochman, 1991). Male rape victims suffer a similar fear that female rape victims face -- that people will believe the myth that they may have enjoyed being raped. Some men may believe they were not raped or that they gave consent because they became sexually aroused, had an erection, or ejaculated during the sexual assault. These are normal, involuntary physiological reactions. It does not mean that the victim wanted to be raped or sexually assaulted, or that the survivor enjoyed the traumatic experience. Sexual arousal does not necessarily mean there was consent.

According to Groth, some assailants may try to get their victim to ejaculate because for the rapist, it symbolizes their complete sexual control over their victim's body. Since ejaculation is not always within conscious control but rather an involuntary physiological reaction, rapists frequently succeed at getting their male victims to ejaculate. As Groth and Burgess have found in their research, this aspect of the attack is extremely stressful and confusing to the victim. In misidentifying ejaculation with orgasm, the victim may be bewildered by his physiological response during the sexual assault and, therefore, may be discouraged from reporting the assault for fear his sexuality may become suspect (Groth & Burgess, 1980).

Another major concern facing male rape victims is society's belief that men should be able to protect themselves and, therefore, it is somehow their fault that they were raped. The experience of a rape may affect gay and heterosexual men differently. Most rape counselors point out that gay men have difficulties in their sexual and emotional relationships with other men and think that the assault occurred because they are gay, whereas straight men often begin to question their sexual identity and are more disturbed by the sexual aspect of the assault than the violence involved (Brochman, 1991).
Male Rape as an Act of Anti-Gay Violence
Unfortunately, incidents of anti-gay violence also include forcible rape, either oral or anal. Attackers frequently use verbal harassment and name-calling during such a sexual assault. Given the context of coercion, however, such technically homosexual acts seem to imply no homosexuality on the part of the offenders. The victim serves, both physically and symbolically, as a "vehicle for the sexual status needs of the offenders in the course of recreational violence" (Harry, 1992, p.115).

If You Are a Victim
Rape and sexual assault include any unwanted sexual acts. Even if you agree to have sex with someone, you have the right to say "no" at any time, and to say "no" to any sexual acts. If you are sexually assaulted or raped, it is never your fault -- you are not responsible for the actions of others.

Richie J. McMullen, author of Male Rape: Breaking the Silence on the Last Taboo, encourages seeking immediate medical attention whether or not the incident is reported to police. Even if you do not seem injured, it is important to get medical attention. Sometimes injuries that seem minor at first can get worse. Survivors can sometimes contract a sexually transmitted disease during the sexual assault, but not suffer immediate symptoms. Even if the symptoms of that disease take weeks or months to appear, it might be easily treated with an early diagnosis. (If you are concerned about HIV exposure, it is important to talk to a counselor about the possibility of exposure and the need for testing. For more information about HIV transmission and testing, contact the Centers for Disease Control National HIV/AIDS Hotline. Check the contact list at the end of this bulletin for the phone number and address information.)

Medical considerations making immediate medical attention imperative include:

• Rectal and anal tearing and abrasions which may require attention and put the you at risk for bacterial infections;
• Potential HIV exposure; and
• Exposure to other sexually transmitted diseases.

If you plan to report the rape to the police, an immediate medical examination is necessary to collect potential evidence for the investigation and prosecution.

Some of the physical reactions a survivor may experience in response to the trauma of a sexual assault or rape include:

• Loss of appetite;
• Nausea and/or stomachaches;
• Headaches;
• Loss of memory and/or concentration; and/or
• Changes in sleep patterns.

Some of the psychological and emotional reactions a sexual assault survivor may experience include:

• Denial and/or guilt;
• Shame or humiliation;
• Fear and a feeling of loss of control;
• Loss of self-respect;
• Flashbacks to the attack;
• Anger and anxiety;
• Retaliation fantasies (sometimes shocking the survivor with their graphic violence);
• Nervous or compulsive behavior;
• Depression and mood swings;
• Withdrawal from relationships; and
• Changes in sexual activity.

Survivors of rape, and often of attempted rape, usually manifest some elements of what has come to be called Rape-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (RR-PTSD), a form of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Apart from a small number of therapists and counselors specializing in sexual assault cases, few psychotherapists are familiar with the symptoms and treatment of RR-PTSD. For this reason, a rape survivor is usually well-advised to consult with a rape crisis center or someone knowledgeable in this area rather than relying on general counseling resources. The same applies to those close to a rape victim, such as a partner, spouse or parent; these persons become secondary victims of the sexual assault and have special issues and concerns that they may need assistance in dealing with effectively.

Local rape crisis centers offer male sexual assault victims direct services or referrals for services, including: counseling, crisis services and support services. Victims may contact their local rape crisis center, no matter how long it has been since the rape occurred. Counselors on staff can either provide support, or help direct the victim to trained professionals who can provide support. Most rape programs are staffed by women; however, some programs have male and female counselors. If you prefer one or the other, make that preference known when you initially contact the program. Whether or not they have male staff on call, almost all rape crisis centers can make referrals to male counselors sensitive to the needs of male sexual assault survivors. In addition, many communities across the country have support groups for victims of anti-gay violence.

Counseling can help you cope with the physical and emotional reactions to the sexual assault or rape, as well as provide you with necessary information about medical and criminal justice system procedures. Seeking counseling is an important way to regain a sense of control over your life after surviving a sexual assault. Contact your local rape crisis program even if services are not expressly advertised for male rape survivors. The number can be found in your local phone book listed under "Community Services Numbers," "Emergency Assistance Numbers," "Survival Numbers" or "Rape."

Sexual assault and rape are serious crimes. As a sexual assault survivor, you have the right to report the crime to the police. This decision is one only you can make. But because authorities are not always sensitive to male sexual assault victims, it is important to have a friend or advocate go with you to report the crime for support and assistance.
 
References
Brochman, Sue. (July 30, 1991). "Silent Victims: Bringing Male Rape Out of the Closet." The Advocate, 582: 38 - 43.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (March 1985). The Crime of Rape. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Donaldson, Donald. (1990). "Rape of Males," in Dynes, Wayne, ed. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland Publications.

Groth, A. Nicholas and Ann Wolbert Burgess. (1980). "Male Rape: Offenders and Victims." American Journal of Psychiatry, 137(7): 806 - 810.

Groth, A. Nicholas and B. A. Birnbaum. (1979). Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender. New York: Plenum.

Harry, Joseph. (1992). "Conceptualizing Anti-Gay Violence," in Herek, Gregory and Kevin Berrill, eds. Hate Crimes: Confronting Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Isley, Paul. (1991). "Adult Male Sexual Assault in the Community: A Literature Review and Group Treatment Model," in Burgess, Ann, ed. Rape and Sexual Assault III: A Research Handbook. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
Lipscomb, Gary H. et al. (1992). "Male Victims of Sexual Assault." Journal of the American Medical Association, 267(22): 3064 - 3066.

McMullen, Richie J. (1990). Male Rape: Breaking the Silence on the Last Taboo. London: GMP Publishers Ltd.

Mezey, Gillian and Michael King. (1989). "The Effects of Sexual Assault on Men: A Survey of 22 Victims." Psychological Medicine, 19(1): 205 - 209.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1992). "Rape-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder," INFO LINK, Arlington, VA.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1995). "Sexual Assault Legislation," INFO LINK, Arlington, VA.

Porter, Eugene. (1986). Treating the Young Male Victim of Sexual Assault. Syracuse, NY: Safer Society Press.
Bibliography
Allers, Christopher et al. (1991). "HIV Vulnerability and the Adult Survivor of Childhood Sexual Abuse." Child Abuse and Neglect, 17: 291 - 298.

Baker, Timothy and Ann Burgess, Ellen Brickman and Robert Davis. (1990). "Rape Victims' Concerns About Possible Exposure to HIV Infection." Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
5(1): 49 - 60.

Bradway, Becky. (1993). Sexual Violence Facts and Statistics. Springfield, IL: Illinois Coalition Against Sexual Assault.

Burgess, Ann and Timothy Baker. (1992). "AIDS and Victims of Sexual Assault." Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43(5): 447 - 448.

Comstock, Gary. (1991). Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men. New York: Columbia University Press.

Fuller, A. Kenneth and Robert Bartucci. (1991). "HIV Transmission and Childhood Sexual Abuse." Journal of Sex Education & Therapy, 17(1).

Gostin, Lawrence et al. (1994). "HIV Testing, Counseling, and Prophylaxis After Sexual Assault." Journal of the American Medical Association, 271(18): 1436 - 1444.

Jenny, Carole et al. (1990). "Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Victims of Rape."
The New England Journal of Medicine, 322(11).

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1992). Looking Back, Moving Forward: A Program for Communities Responding to Sexual Assault. Arlington, VA: National Center for Victims of Crime.
National Center for Victims of Crime and Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center. (1992). Rape in America: A Report to the Nation. Arlington, VA: National Center for Victims of Crime.
For additional information, please contact:
Centers for Disease Control National HIV/AIDS Hotline
American Social Health Association
P.O. Box 13827
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(800) 342 - AIDS
(800) 344 - SIDA (Spanish)
(800) 243 - 7889 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (800) 243 - 7889      end_of_the_skype_highlighting (TDD)
Provides information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, about HIV/AIDS and will send free, written information, including legal services, counseling and therapies.
Men's Resource Center
12 Southeast 14th
Portland, OR 97214
(503) 235 - 3433 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (503) 235 - 3433      end_of_the_skype_highlighting

Men Stopping Rape
306 North Brooks Street
Madison, WI 53715
(608) 257 - 4444 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (608) 257 - 4444      end_of_the_skype_highlighting

National AIDS Clearinghouse
Centers for Disease Control
P.O. Box 6003
Rockville, MD 20849
(800) 458 - 5231 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (800) 458 - 5231      end_of_the_skype_highlighting
(800) 243 - 7012 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (800) 243 - 7012      end_of_the_skype_highlighting (TDD)
Distributes a variety of educational materials to the public. Provides expert referrals.

National Coalition Against Sexual Assault
125 N. Enola Drive
Enola, PA 17025
(717) 728 - 9764 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (717) 728 - 9764      end_of_the_skype_highlighting

National Crime Victims Research & Treatment Center
Medical University of South Carolina
171 Ashley Avenue
Charleston, SC 29425
(843) 792 - 2945 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (843) 792 - 2945      end_of_the_skype_highlighting

National Gay & Lesbian Task Force
2320 17^th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20009
(202) 332 - 6483 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting              (202) 332 - 6483      end_of_the_skype_highlighting

Your state Attorney General, county/city prosecutor, or county/city law enforcement:

Check in the Blue pages of your local phone book under the appropriate section heading of either "Local Governments," "County Governments," or "State Government."


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